CONJUGATE Meaning in telugu English, CONJUGATE in telugu
How to say conjugate in Telugu - WordHippo
its happens meaning in telugu - philipminorconstruction.com
What does unconjugated mean? - definitions
BILIRUBIN Meaning in telugu English, BILIRUBIN in telugu
Conjugate in Telugu - English-Telugu Dictionary - Glosbe
ignore you meaning in telugu - pontecesures.net
Lipoprotein in Telugu, translation, English-Telugu Dictionary
What is another word for conjugated? | Conjugated Synonyms
conjugated meaning in telugu
conjugated meaning in telugu - win
Добродошли - This week's language of the week: Serbian!
Serbian (Serbian Cyrillic: српски, Latin: srpski, pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː]) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language used chiefly by Serbs in Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, it is a recognized minority language in Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Albania and Greece.
Linguistics
Serbian is an Slavic language and, as such, is closely related to Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin (and is often considered the same language), as well as Russian and Slovenian. It is more distantly related to English, Hindi and Ancient Hittite. Classification Indo-European > Balto-Slavic > Slavic > South Slavic > Western > Serbo-Croatian > Serbiana Morphophonemics Serbian has five vowel phonemes, /a, e, i, o, u/, which are also distinguished on length, giving a total of 10 phonemic vowel contrasts. The consonant system of Serbo-Croatian has 25 phonemes. One peculiarity is a presence of both post-alveolar and palatal affricates, but a lack of corresponding palatal fricatives. Unlike most other Slavic languages such as Russian, there is no palatalized versus non-palatalized (hard–soft) contrast for most consonants. Morphology and Syntax Serbian is a highly inflected language, with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs. Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type. Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders: masculine, feminine or neuter. Each noun may be inflected to represent the noun's grammatical case, of which Serbian has seven: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental and locative. Nouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number, singular or plural. Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns. Serbian is a pro-drop language, meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text. In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis. Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms—perfect, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect—of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to the second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense. These are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and the second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses). Serbian has active and passive voice. As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive, two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past). Orthography Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic (ћирилица, ćirilica) and Latin script (latinica, латиница). Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or the other. Although standard Serbian uses both scripts, the Cyrillic script is the current official script of the language in Serbia. Written sample Sjeverni ledeni vjetar i Sunce su se prepirali o svojoj snazi. Spoken samples Djokovic press conference (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvX5Hxy4Zys) Lullaby (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G3fdqj1P3Ns) Sources & Further reading Wikipedia articles on Serbian What now? This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.
Marhaba - This week's language of the week: Sylheti!
Sylheti (Sylheti Nagri: ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Silôṭi, Bengali: সিলেটি, romanized: Sileti) is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh, Barak Valley of the Indian state of Assam and Northern part of the Tripura state. There is also a substantial number of Sylheti speakers in the Indian states of Meghalaya, Manipur, and Nagaland. It also has a large diaspora in the United Kingdom, the United States and the Middle East.
Linguistics
Sylheti is an Indo-Aryan language, which means it's closely related to languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and more distantly related to languages such as English, Welsh and Ancient Hittite. Classification Indo-European> Indo-Iranian > Indo-Aryan > Eastern > Bengali–Assamese > Bengali > Sylheti Morphophonemics Sylheti has five phonemic vowels and 24 phonemic consonants. Unlike most Indo-Aryan (and, indeed, Indo-European) languages, Sylheti is a tonal language (Punjabi is another Indo-Aryan tonal language). While there is no direct evidence that tonogenesis in Sylheti arose due to contact with Tibeto-Burman languages, there has been extensive contact between them so it is possible that tone is an areal feature between the languages. Morphology and Syntax Sylheti does not have any articles. The default word order is Subject-Object-Verb. The language is a pro-drop language as well. Sylheti nouns do not distinguish gender and only sometimes distinguishes between singular and plural nouns. Adjectives precede the noun, and adverbs precede the verbs as well. Sylheti nouns include a locative case and use postpositions. To make a sentence interrogative, you can add the particle ni after it. Sylheti has several different nominative pronouns, and the second person pronoun distinguishes between very familiar, familiar and polite. Likewise, there is a polite form of the third person pronoun. The nominative pronouns can be seen in the table below.
Sylheti
Meaning
ami
I
tui
You (very familiar)
tumi
You (familiar)
afne
You (polite)
igu/ogu
he/she
he
he
tai
she
tain/hein/ein
he/she (polite)
amra
we
tura
you (very familiar)
tumra
you (familiar)
afnara
you (polite)
iguin/oguin
they
tara
they (he pl., she pl., polite plural)
Sylheti pronouns also come in possessive forms, as well as an object case. Sylheti verbs can be conjugated for several tenses: present, present continuous,future, conditional, simple past, perfect, past perfect, and there are present participles, conditional participles and conjunctive participles as well. Verbal nouns can also be created from the verb stems, as can passives. Infinitives and imperatives exist as well; so does a request form using the conditional tense. Orthography The language is primarily written in the Eastern Nagari script however an alternative script was also founded in the Sylhet region known as Sylheti Nagri. During the British colonial period, Moulvi Abdul Karim spent several years in London learning the printing trade. After returning home in the 1870s, he designed a woodblock type for Sylheti Nagri and founded the Islamia Press in Sylhet town. The written form of Sylheti which was used to write puthis was identical to those written in the Dobhashi dialect due to both lacking the use of tatsama and using Perso-Arabic vocabulary as a replacement. Similar to Dobhashi, many Sylheti Nagri texts were paginated from right to left Written sample ꠗꠣꠞꠣ ১: ꠢꠇꠟ ꠝꠣꠘꠥꠡ ꠡꠣꠗꠤꠘꠜꠣꠛꠦ ꠢꠝꠣꠘ ꠁꠎ꠆ꠎꠔ ꠀꠞ ꠢꠇ ꠟꠁꠀ ꠙꠄꠖꠣ ‘ꠅꠄ। ꠔꠣꠞꠣꠞ ꠛꠤꠛꠦꠇ ꠀꠞ ꠀꠇꠟ ꠀꠍꠦ। ꠄꠞ ꠟꠣꠉꠤ ꠢꠇꠟꠞ ꠃꠌꠤꠔ ꠄꠇꠎꠘꠦ ꠀꠞꠇꠎꠘꠞ ꠟꠉꠦ ꠛꠤꠞꠣꠖꠞꠤꠞ ꠝꠘ ꠟꠁꠀ ꠀꠌꠞꠘ ꠇꠞꠣ। Spoken samples https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wP7LAvWsA9U (Rap Song) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1Kxrm6WrO4 (Foreigner speaking Sylheti) Sources & Further reading Wikipedia articles on Sylheti What now? This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.
Тавтай морилогтун - This week's language of the week: Mongolian!
Mongolian is a Mongolic language and the official language of Mongolian. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. In Mongolia, the Khalkha dialect, written in Cyrillic (and at times in Latin for social networking), is predominant, while in Inner Mongolia, the language is dialectally more diverse and is written in the traditional Mongolian script.
History
The history of the Mongolian language is usually divided into three distinct eras. The first of these, Old, or Ancient, Mongolian, was spoken until around the 12th century CE. This is often equated with the Proto-Mongolian language. It was then followed by the Middle Mongolian period, lasted until the 16th century CE. Modern Mongolian has been dominant since. The first attestation of the Mongolian Script is from around 1225 CE, though it seems to have developed about 30 years earlier. The texts in this script are classified as Middle Mongolian, and are part of a pre-Classical era of Mongolian literature. The conversion of the Mongols to Buddhism (c. 1575) ushered in the Classical period (17th and early 18th centuries) of translation of scriptural texts from Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese, and this period corresponds to the commencement of the Modern period of the spoken language. Not until the 19th century did features of contemporary spoken Mongolian languages begin to appear in Mongolian texts. The other Mongolian languages started to split off from Old Mongolian following the expansion of the Mongols during the Middle Mongolian period.
Linguistics
As a Mongolic language, Mongolian is related to other languages such as Daur, Oirat, Monguor, Shira Yugur and Moghol. Some linguists theorize it is part of a larger family with the Kitan language. The data discussed here is from the standard Khalkha variety of Mongolian in Mongolia. Classification Mongolian's full classification is as follows: Mongolic (Proto-Mongolic Language) > Mongolian Phonology and Phonotactics There are seven monophthong vowel phonemes in Mongolian. Word-initially, there is a phonemic contrast for length, giving a total of 14 contrastive vowel phonemes (length is only contrastive word initially). These phonemes are /i e ɵ a ɔ ʊ u/ with their corresponding long forms (/oː/ is the long form of /ɵ/, due to a sound change in the non-lenghtened one). There are 29 consonant phonemes, with an additional four that only appear in loan words. The maximal syllable structure is CVVCCC, and stress is non-phonemic and there is not much scholary consensus on where stress falls in a word. Mongolian also has two types of vowel harmony. The first, known as Advanced Tongue Root, is a three-way system. The other is based off rounding, and does not affect closed vowels. Morphology and Syntax Mongolian is an aggulitinative language, and almost wholly suffixing, with the one exception being reduplication. Mongolian nouns decline for plurality and case, as well as reflexivization. Plurality is not required, and is never used when the context already indicates the noun is plural. Mongolian declines for eight different cases: nominative, genitive, dative-locative, accusative, ablative, instrumental, comitative and directive. Mongolian verbs are conjugated by extensive addition of suffixes. These are attached in the following order: voice - aspect - mood. Mongolian has several different voice suffixes.
The active suffix, is unmarked on the verb and is used when the subject of the sentence is active.
The causative voice suffix is used when the subject (which doesn't have to appear) causes something to happen.
The passive voice suffix, which works similar to the English passive but is rarely used.
The communal voice suffix, which expresses that the action of the subject is associated with the action(s) of other(s). The subject is usually a helper, but the action of 'helping' is not being stressed; rather, it's the fact that someone takes part or is involved in the action that is being stressed.
The adversative voice suffix is used when actions of two or more subjects happen simultaneously; despite its name, it is not inherently negative.
Likewise, there are many aspect suffixes:
quick action suffix, which expresses that the action happens quickly and in a short time. Can sometimes be translated with "a little, a bit".
temporary action, which signifies the action is to continue for a little while, but has a temporary character.
completed action, which expresses an action that has been fully completed; often appears with the perfect aspect, and bears a slight perfect meaning
collective action, which reveals that many people (usually more than two) are involved in the action, and thus the subject is plural
repetitive action, which expresses an action that is repeated again and again
progressive action, which indicates something is happening currently
perfect action, which is an action that continues up to a certain selected point of time in the past/present/future; very similar to the English perfect aspect
progressive-perfect aspect, which combines the previous two.
The following mood suffixes are used in Mongolian:
noun determining suffixes, which link the verb to a succeeding noun. Among these there are ones for past, indefinite present, progressive present, future, and "doer".
adword determining suffixes, which include suffixes for wish, possibility and necessity.
tense-bound terminating suffixes, which include: general past, three other past suffixes, indefinite present, progressive present, present and future.
There are seven personal pronouns used in Mongolian. There are two singular 'you', with one being an honorific and the other being more informal. The honorific is the original form, and it was from this that the plural 'you' is derived. The third person pronouns are considered impolite, as they originally derived from demonstratives. All forms can be seen in the table below:
Meaning
Pronoun
1s
Би
2s informal
Чи
2s formal
Та
3s
Тэр
1pl
Бид
2pl
Та нар
3pl
Тэд
нар, required with the second person plural, can be added to the third and first person plural to stress the plural meaning or to indicate a group of individuals.
Miscellany
Mongolian is now currently written in the Cyrillic alphabet, though the Mongolian Script is used in China.
Slovak (/ˈsloʊvæk, -vɑːk/) or less frequently Slovakian is a West Slavic language (together with Czech, Polish, and Sorbian). It is called slovenský jazyk (pronounced [ˈslɔʋɛnskiː ˈjazik] ) or slovenčina ([ˈslɔʋɛntʃina]) in the language itself. Slovak is the official language of Slovakia, where it is spoken by approximately 5.51 million people (2014). Slovak speakers are also found in the United States, the Czech Republic, Argentina, Serbia, Ireland, Romania, Poland, Canada, Hungary, Germany, Croatia, Israel, the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Ukraine, Norway and many other countries worldwide.
History
he earliest written records of Slovak are represented by personal and place names, later by sentences, short notes and verses in Latin and Czech documents. Latin documents contain also mentions about a cultivation of the vernacular language. The complete texts are available since the 15th century. In the 15th century, Latin began to lose its privileged position in favor of Czech and cultural Slovak. The Old Church Slavonic became the literary and liturgical language, and the Glagolitic alphabet, the corresponding script in Great Moravia until 885. Latin continues to be used in parallel. Some of the early Old Church Slavonic texts contain elements of the language of the Slavic inhabitants of Great Moravia and Pannonia, which were called the Sloviene by Slavic texts at that time. The use of Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by Pope Stephen V in 885; consequently, Latin became the administrative and liturgical language again. Many followers and students of Constantine and Methodius fled to Bulgaria, Croatia, Bohemia, the Kievan Rus' and other countries. From the 10th century onward, Slovak began to develop independently. Very few written records of Old Slovak remain, mainly from the 13th century onwards, consisting of groups of words or single sentences. Fuller Slovak texts appeared starting from 15th century. The old Slovak language and its development can be research mainly through old Slovak toponyms, petrificated within Latin texts. Examples include crali (1113) > kráľ, king; dorz (1113) > dvorec; grinchar (1113) > hrnčiar, potter; mussenic (1113) > mučeník, martyr; scitar (1113) > štítar, shieldmaker; zaltinc (1156) > zlatník, goldmaker; duor (1156) > dvor, courtyard; and otroč (1156) > otrok, slave, servant. In 1294, the monk Ivanka from Kláštor pod Znievom wrote: "ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta". It is important mainly because it contains the oldest recorded adjective Slovak in the Slovak language, whose modern form is slovensky. Up until this point, all adjectives were recorded mainly in Latin, including sclavus, slavus and sclavoniae. Anton Bernolák, a Catholic priest (1762-1813), published the Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum in 1787, in which he codifies a Slovak language standard that is based on the Western Slovak language of the University of Trnava but contains also some central Slovak elements, e.g. soft consonants ď, ť, ň, ľ and many words. The orthography is strictly diacritical. The language is often called the Bernolák language. Bernolák continued his codification work in other books in the 1780s and 1790s and especially in his huge six-volume Slovak-Czech-Latin-German-Hungarian Dictionary, in print from 1825-1927. In the 1820s, the Bernolák standard was revised, and Central Slovak elements were systematically replaced by their Western Slovak equivalents. This was the first successful establishment of a Slovak language standard. Bernolák's language was used by Slovak Catholics, especially by the writers Juraj Fándly and Ján Hollý, but Protestants still wrote in the Czech language in its old form used in Bohemia until the 17th century. In 1843, young Slovak Lutheran Protestants, led by Ľudovít Štúr, decided to establish and discuss the central Slovak dialect as the new Slovak language standard instead of both Bernolák's language used by the Catholics and the Czech language used by older Slovak Lutheran Protestants. The new standard was also accepted by some users of the Bernolák language led by Ján Hollý, but was initially criticized by the older Lutheran Protestants led by Ján Kollár (died 1852). This language formed the basis of the later literary Slovak language that is used today. It was officially declared the new language standard in August 1844. The first Slovak grammar of the new language will be published by Ľudovít Štúr in 1846. With the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Slovak became an official language for the first time in history along with the Czech language. The Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 and the constitutional law on minorities which was adopted alongside the constitution on the same day established the Czechoslovak language as an official language Since the Czechoslovak language did not exist, the law recognized its two variants, Czech and Slovak. Czech was usually used in administration in the Czech lands; Slovak, in Slovakia. In practice, the position of languages was not equal. Along with political reasons, this situation was caused by a different historical experience and numerous Czech teachers and clerks in Slovakia, who helped to restore the educational system and administration because Slovaks educated in the Slovak language were missing. Czechoslovakia split into Slovakia and Czechia in 1992. The Slovak language became the official language of Slovakia.
Linguistics
An Indo-European language, Slovak is closely related to other languages such as Czech. It is more distantly related to languages as far apart as English and Ancient Hittite. Classification Slovak's full classification is as follows: Indo-European > Balto-Slavic > Slavic > West Slavic > Czech–Slovak > Slovak Morphophonemics Slovak has five (or six) short vowel phonemes. These five can also be distinguished by length, giving a total of 10 contrastive vowel phonemes. There are four diphthongs in the language. Slovak has 29 consonant phonemes, however. These phonemes are contrasted by place of articulation as well as voicing. Voiceless stops and affricates are made without aspiration. In the standard language, the stress is always on the first syllable of a word (or on the preceding preposition, see below). This is not the case in certain dialects. Eastern dialects have penultimate stress (as in Polish), which at times makes them difficult to understand for speakers of standard Slovak. Some of the north-central dialects have a weak stress on the first syllable, which becomes stronger and moves to the penultimate in certain cases. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb byť (to be) are usually unstressed. Prepositions form a single prosodic unit with the following word, unless the word is long (four syllables or more) or the preposition stands at the beginning of a sentence. Syntax Word order in Slovak is relatively free, since strong inflection enables the identification of grammatical roles (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of word placement. This relatively free word order allows the use of word order to convey topic and emphasis. Slovak nouns are inflected for case and number. There are six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, and instrumental. The vocative is no longer morphologically marked. There are two numbers: singular and plural. Nouns have inherent gender. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives and pronouns must agree with nouns in case, number, and gender. Slovak has 9 different personal pronouns, which can also appear in the various cases. The 9 pronouns are given in the nominative case in the table below.
Meaning
Pronoun
1s
ja
2s informal
ty
3s masc
on
3s neut
ono
3s fem
ona
1p
my
2p (2s formal)
vy
3p (masculine animate, or mixed genders)
oni
3p (other)
ony
Verbs have three major conjugations. Three persons and two numbers (singular and plural) are distinguished. Several conjugation paradigms exist as follows: Slovak is a pro-drop language, which means the pronouns are generally omitted unless they are needed to add emphasis. Historically, two past tense forms were utilized. Both are formed analytically. The second of these, equivalent to the pluperfect, is not used in the modern language, being considered archaic and/or grammatically incorrect. One future tense exists. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Two conditional forms exist, both formed analytically from the past tense. Most Slovak verbs can have two forms: perfective (the action has ended or is complete) and imperfective (the action has not yet ended). Orthography Slovak uses the Latin script with small modifications that include the four diacritics (ˇ, ´, ¨, ˆ) placed above certain letters (a-á,ä; c-č; d-ď; dz-dž; e-é; i-í; l-ľ,ĺ; n-ň; o-ó,ô; r-ŕ; s-š; t-ť; u-ú; y-ý; z-ž) The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonemic principle. The secondary principle is the morphological principle: forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently. An example of this principle is the assimilation rule (see below). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are usually pronounced the same way. Finally, the rarely applied grammatical principle is present when, for example, the basic singular form and plural form of masculine adjectives are written differently with no difference in pronunciation (e.g. pekný = nice – singular versus pekní = nice – plural). Written Sample: Všetci ľudia sa rodia slobodní a sebe rovní, čo sa týka ich dostôjnosti a práv. Sú obdarení rozumom a majú navzájom jednať v bratskom duchu. Spoken sample: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLwMLhr_McQ (interview) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ShR1Hp4xFDw (lullaby) https://youtu.be/qW0GpWnioTQ (wikitongues) Sources & Further reading Wikipedia articles on Slovak What now? This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.
Benvinguts - This week's language of the week: Catalan
Catalan is a Romance language spoken by approximately 10 million speakers, with roughly 4 million being native speakers. It is the only official language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencia (where the language is known as Valencian). It also has semi-official status in the Italian comune of Alghero. It is also spoken in the eastern strip of Aragon, in some villages of Region of Murcia called Carche and in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France. These territories are often called Països Catalans or "Catalan Countries".
History
Historian Jaume Villanueva stated that the first sample of Catalan was a sentence in a now-lost manuscript from Ripoll. It was a whimsical note in 10th- or early 11th-century calligraphy: Magister m[eu]s no vol que em miras novel ("my master does not want you to watch me, newbie"). Around the 9th century, however, certain texts written in macaronic Latin start to show Catalan traits. However, it was not until the 11th century that texts written wholly in Catalan started to appear. Some of these texts are Oath of Radulf Oriol (ca. 1028-1047) Complaints of Guitard Isarn, Lord of Caboet (ca. 1080–1095), or The Oath of Peace and Truce of Count Pere Ramon (1098). However, it was often difficult at this time to determine if the language of some texts was Catalan or Occitan, as the two languages were extremely similar at the time. Catalan lived a golden age during the Late Middle Ages, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural plenitude. Examples of this can be seen in the works of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th-14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry which culminated in Ausiàs March (1397–1459). By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the center of social and cultural dynamism, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world.The belief that political splendor was correlated with linguistic consolidation was voiced through the Royal Chancery, which promoted a highly standardized language After the Nueva Planta Decrees, the use of Catalan in administration and education was banned in the Kingdom of Spain. It was not until the Renaixença that use of the Catalan language saw a resurgence. In Francoist Spain (1939–1975), the use of Spanish in place of Catalan was promoted, and public use of Catalan was initially repressed and discouraged by official propaganda campaigns. The use of Catalan in government-run institutions and in public events was banned. During later stages of the Francoist regime, certain folkloric or religious celebrations in Catalan were allowed to resume and were tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media was initially forbidden, but beginning in the early 1950s, it was permitted in the theater. Publishing in Catalan continued throughout the dictatorship. There were attempts at prohibiting the use of spoken Catalan in public and in commerce, and all advertising and signage had to be in Spanish, as did all written communication in business. Following the death of Franco in 1975 and the restoration of democracy under a constitutional monarchy, the use of Catalan increased significantly because of new affirmative action and subsidy policies. The Catalan language is now used in politics, education and the media, including the newspapers Avui ("Today"), El Punt ("The Point"), Ara ("Now"), La Vanguardia and El Periódico de Catalunya (sharing content with El Periòdic d'Andorra, printed in Andorra); and the television channels of Televisió de Catalunya (TVC): TV3, and Canal 33 (culture channel), Super3/3XL (cartoons channel) as well as a 24-hour news channel 3/24 and the sports channel Esport 3; in Valencia à punt; in the Balearic islands IB3; in Catalonia there are also some private channels such as 8TV and Barça TV.
Linguistics
As a Romance language, Catalan is related to other well-known languages such as Spanish and French, as well as to lesser-known Romance languages such as Aromanian and Sardinian. It is more distantly related to other Indo-European languages such as English, Hindi and ancient Hittite. Classification Catalan's full classification is as follows: Indo-European > Italic > Romance > Western Romance > Gallo-Romance > Occitano-Romance > Catalan Morphophonemics Catalan contains seven stressed vowel phonemes, which, depending on the dialect, often reduce down to three distinct phonemes when they are unstressed. There are 25 or 26 consonant phonemes, depending on the dialect. Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word. Syntax As in most Romance languages, Catalan nouns, adjectives, pronouns and articles are inflected for two genders (masculine and feminine) and two numbers (singular and plural). Apart from the pronouns, Catalan retains no case inflection. Catalan exhibits more personal pronouns than either Spanish or Italian, with a total of 13, the subject forms are listed in the table below. Like most European languages, there is a T-V distinction in the language based on formality, so a different (more formal) pronoun would be used. There is also an additional, more respectful form of the second person singular pronoun that is archaic except in a few dialects and administrative texts, also included in the table below. Like many Romance language, pronomial objects (both direct and indirect) are represented as either clitics before the verb or as suffixes to the verb.
Pronoun
Meaning
jo, mi
1st singular
nosaltres
1st plural
tu
2nd singular informal
vosaltres
2nd plural informal
vostè
2nd singular formal
vostès
2nd plural formal
vós
2nd person respectful
ell
3rd person singular masculine
ells
3rd person plural masculine
ella
3rd person singular feminine
elles
3rd person plural feminine
si
3rd person reflexive
hom
3rd person impersonal
Catalan verbs can inflect for a wide variety of tenses, aspects and moods, and is typologically a fusional paradigm. Overall, there are 11 total verbal forms, though one of them is archaic. The non-finite forms are the infinitive, the root form of the verb, the gerund, the past participial; the finite forms include indicative present, imperfect, preterite (archaic), future and conditional; subjunctive present and imperfect; and the imperative. Within each finite paradigm, there are six different forms, representing each of the three persons and two numbers; like many other Romance languages, the formal second person forms conjugate in the manner of the third person. Catalan word order is generally subject-verb-object, but can also be fairly free to allow for slight semantic differences and topic focuses. Orthography Catalan uses the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs. The Catalan orthography is systematic and largely phonologically based.Standardization of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC, founded in 1911) published the Normes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called Normes de Castelló, a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms Text sample: Tenia prop de divuit anys quan vaig conèixer en Raül, a l'estació de Manresa. El meu pare havia mort, inesperadament i encara jove, un parell d'anys abans, i d'aquells temps conservo un record de punyent solitud. Les meves relacions amb la mare no havien pas millorat, tot el contrari, potser fins i tot empitjoraven a mesura que em feia gran. No existia, no existí mai entre nosaltres, una comunitat d'interessos, d'afeccions. Cal creure que cercava... una persona en qui centrar la meva vida afectiva. Spoken sample: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nN4fDhAcGTM (Wikitongues video) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=diITZkQlcxs&list=PLjDCKlXHQBGYSpTwIy3MSfs7qmn0Artz- (Playlist of Catalan folksongs) Sources & Further reading Wikipedia on Catalan /catalan What now? This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.
Velkommen - This week's language of the week: Danish!
Danish (/ˈdeɪnɪʃ/ ; dansk [ˈtænˀsk], dansk sprog [ˈtænˀsk ˈspʁɔʊ̯ˀ])is a North Germanic language spoken by around six million people, principally in Denmark and in the region of Southern Schleswig in northern Germany, where it has minority language status] Also, minor Danish-speaking communities are found in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their first language.
History
Proto-Norse, the common ancestor of all the Germanic languages of Scandinavia and Iceland, had evolved into Old Norse by the 8th century CE. At this time, the Old Norse language began to undergo localized shifts, developing into two similar, but distinct, dialects: Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Ole East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). The language of this period was written in the runic alphabet, first being written in Older Futhark, but then, in Denmark, in Younger Futhark from the 9th century. In the medieval period, Danish emerged as a separate language from Swedish. The main written language was Latin, and the few Danish-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet, although the runic alphabet seems to have lingered in popular usage in some areas. The main text types written in this period are laws, which were formulated in the vernacular language to be accessible also to those who were not latinate. The Jutlandic Law and Scanian Law were written in vernacular Danish in the early-13th century. Beginning in 1350, Danish began to be used as a language of administration, and new types of literature began to be written in the language, such as royal letters and testaments. The orthography in this period was not standardized nor was the spoken language, and the regional laws demonstrate the dialectal differences between the regions in which they were written. Following the first Bible translation, the development of Danish as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Danish, first among them Rasmus Bartholin's 1657 Latin grammar De studio lingvæ danicæ; then Laurids Olufsen Kock's 1660 grammar of the Zealand dialect Introductio ad lingvam Danicam puta selandicam; and in 1685 the first Danish grammar written in Danish, Den Danske Sprog-Kunst ("The Art of the Danish Language") by Peder Syv. Major authors from this period are Thomas Kingo, poet and psalmist, and Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, whose novel Jammersminde (Remembered Woes) is considered a literary masterpiece by scholars. Orthography was still not standardized and the principles for doing so were vigorously discussed among Danish philologists. The grammar of Jens Pedersen Høysgaard was the first to give a detailed analysis of Danish phonology and prosody, including a description of the stød. In this period, scholars were also discussing whether it was best to "write as one speaks" or to "speak as one writes", including whether archaic grammatical forms that had fallen out of use in the vernacular, such as the plural form of verbs, should be conserved in writing (i.e. han er "he is" vs. de ere "they are").
Linguistics
An Indo-European language, Danish is related to other commonly spoken languages such as Spanish and English. It is closely related to the other North Germanic languages, such as Swedish, Norwegian, Faroese and Icelandic. Older forms of the language include Old Norse, Old East Norse, Early Old Danish and Old Danish. Classification Danish's full classification is as follows: Indo-European> Germanic> North Germanic> South Scandinavian> Danish Morphophonemics Many modern variants of Danish distinguish 27 vowel phonemes. There are 12 long vowels, 13 short vowels and two neutral ones. 19 different diphthongs also occur. Compared to its vowel inventory, the consonant inventory of Danish is relatively simple, with only 16 independent phonemes. However, there can be lots of allophony depending on the positioning of these consonants. Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called stød (lit. "thrust"). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon. It has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as bønder ("peasants") with stød, versus bønner ("beans") without stød. The distribution of stød in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish. Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as billigst [ˈbilist] "cheapest" and bilist [biˈlist] "car driver" Syntax Danish nouns decline for number and definiteness and are classified into one of two genders, common and neuter. Like other Scandinavian languages, Danish suffixes the definite article onto the word. A case system is only retained in Danish pronouns, where there is a distinction between a a subjective case and an oblique case, similar to the distinction which still exists in English. The pronouns can be seen in the table below.
Person
Subjective Case
Oblique Case
1s
jeg
mig
2s
du
dig
3s
han/hun/den/det
ham/hende/den/det
1p
vi
os
2p
i
jer
3p
de
dem
Danish nouns do not undergo much conjugations. For example, neither number nor person is marked on the verb. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative. Orthography The oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet. The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin script to Denmark, and at the end of the High Middle Ages Runes had more or less been replaced by Latin letters. Danish orthography is conservative, using most of the conventions established in the 16th century. The spoken language however has changed a lot since then, creating a gap between the spoken and written languages. Written Sample: Alle mennesker er født frie og lige i værdighed og rettigheder. De er udstyret med fornuft og samvittighed, og de bør handle mod hverandre i en broderskabets ånd. Spoken sample: https://youtu.be/f7Msppvklb0 (Wikitongues) Sources & Further reading Wikipedia articles on Danish What now? This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.
Terve - This week's language of the week: Finnish!
Finnish (suomi, or suomen kieli [ˈsuomen ˈkieli]) is a Finnic language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a Finnish dialect, are spoken. The Kven language, a dialect of Finnish, is spoken in Northern Norway by a minority group of Finnish descent.
Linguistics
Classification Finnish's full classification (using an agnostic approach that assumes all branches are distinct, since Finno-Urgic having been challenged and abandoned by Ethnologue) is as follows: Uralic (Proto-Uralic) > Finnic (Proto-Finnic) > Finnish Phonology and Phonotactics Standard Finnish has 8 vowels and 18 diphthongs. Vowels are contrasted based on length, with both long and short vowels existing. These contrasts occur in both stressed and unstressed syllables, though long vowels tend to be more common in short syllables. There is almost no allophony between among the Finnish vowels. Finnish has 13 consonant sounds, and, like the vowels, these too can be short or long (gemination), with these being phonemic. Independent consonant clusters are not allowed in native words, except for a small set of two-consonant syllable codas, e.g. 'rs' in karsta. However, because of a number of recently adopted loanwords using them, e.g. strutsi from Swedish struts, meaning "ostrich", Finnish speakers can pronounce them, even if it is somewhat awkward. The main stress is always on the first syllable. Stress does not cause any measurable modifications in vowel quality (very much unlike English). However, stress is not strong and words appear evenly stressed. In some cases, stress is so weak that the highest points of volume, pitch and other indicators of "articulation intensity" are not on the first syllable, although native speakers recognize the first syllable as a stressed syllable. Finnish has several morphophonological processes that require modification of the forms of words for daily speech. The most important processes are vowel harmony and consonant gradation. Vowel harmony is a redundancy feature, which means that the feature [±back] is uniform within a word, and so it is necessary to interpret it only once for a given word. It is meaning-distinguishing in the initial syllable, and suffixes follow; so, if the listener hears [±back] in any part of the word, they can derive [±back] for the initial syllable. For example, from the stem tuote ("product") one derives tuotteeseensa ("into his product"), where the final vowel becomes the back vowel 'a' (rather than the front vowel 'ä') because the initial syllable contains the back vowels 'uo'. This is especially notable because vowels 'a' and 'ä' are different, meaning-distinguishing phonemes, not interchangeable or allophonic. Finnish front vowels are not umlauts. Consonant gradation is a partly nonproductive lenition process for P, T and K in inherited vocabulary, with the oblique stem "weakened" from the nominative stem, or vice versa. For example, tarkka "precise" has the oblique stem tarka-, as in tarkan "of the precise". There is also another gradation pattern, which is older, and causes simple elision of T and K in suffixes. However, it is very common since it is found in the partitive case marker: if V is a single vowel, V+ta → Va, e.g. *tarkka+ta → tarkkaa. Finnish syllable structure can be classified as (C)V(S)(C) where (S) stands for 'segment', either a consonant or a phoneme. There are some rare syllables that break these general rules, but the basic syllable type given above constitute well over 90% of the words. Grammar Finnish is an agglutinative language. Finnish word order is fairly free, though a general tendency towards subject-verb-object does exist. However, this is often overridden by the fact that the topic of the conversation comes first (if talking about a man that was bitten by a dog, the word for man would come first). Neither Finnish nouns nor pronouns decline for gender. There is also no article in the language. However, Finnish does distinguish 15 (16 in some dialects) noun cases. There are four grammatical cases (nominative, genitive, accusative and partitive), six locative cases (inessive, elative, illative, adessive, ablative, allative), two (three in some dialects) essive cases (essive and translative) and three 'marginal cases' (instructive, abessive and comitative). Finnish has 7 pronouns, distinguishing three persons and two numbers (singular and plural), but no gender distinction in the third person. The seventh pronoun is a formal 2nd person. While the first and second person pronouns are generally dropped in Standard Finnish, they are common in colloquial speech; third person is required in both standard and colloquial Finnish. The third person pronouns, hän and he are often replaced with se and ne (singular and plural, respectively) in colloquial speech. Finnish adjectives share the inflection paradigms of Finnish nouns and must agree with the noun in both number and case. Adverbs are generally formed by adding the suffix -sti to the inflecting form of the corresponding adjectives. Outside of this derivational process, they are not inflected. Being a case rich language, Finnish has few post- or prepositions. However, what few it has tend to be postpositions. When the postposition governs a noun, the noun takes the genitive case. Likewise, a postposition can take a possessive suffix to express persons. Prepositions tend to take nouns in the partitive case. Finnish has six conjugation classes; even though each class takes the same personal endings, the stems take different suffixes and change slightly when the verb is conjugated. Finnish has very few irregular verbs, and even some of those are irregular only in certain persons, moods, tenses, etc. Finnish verbs can conjugate for four tenses: non-past, historically called the present, which can express the present or the future; preterite, historically called the imperfect, which covers English past simple and past continuous; perfect, which corresponds to the English present perfect; plusperfect, which corresponds to the English past perfect. Finnish verbs can also conjugate for two voices, the active and the passive. The Finnish passive is unipersonal, that is, it only appears in one form regardless of who is understood to be performing the action. In that respect, it could be described as a "fourth person", since there is no (standard) way of connecting the action performed with a particular agent. Finnish verbs conjugate for five different moods. These are the indicative, the conditional, the imperative (split into several types), the optative and the potential. A sixth mood, the eventitive, is no longer used in Finnish, but is the mood used in the Finnish epic poem Kalevala. Finnish infinitives can come in four, sometimes analyzed as five, different groups. The first one is the citation form of the infinitive and corresponds to the English 'to X' infinitive use. The second infinitive is used to express aspects of actions relating to the time when an action takes place or the manner in which an action happens. In equivalent English phrases these time aspects can often be expressed using 'when', 'while' or 'whilst' and the manner aspects using the word 'by' or else the gerund, which is formed by adding "ing" to English verb to express manner. The third infinitive corresponds to the English gerund while the fourth and the fifth, both of which are rare in Finnish today, mark obligation and 'just about to...' respectively. Miscellany
Finnish, with 15/16 cases, has more cases than its ancestor Proto-Uralic, which is typically reconstructed with six; so, unlike most Indo-European languages, Finnish gained cases over time.
The exessive case is the essive case found only in some dialects
Finnish has borrowed extensively, with some linguists positing that only 300 Proto-Uralic words can be found in Finnish; however, due to the radical differences between Finnish and its Indo-European neighbors, borrowings quickly get nativized.
Some Finnish loan words do not seem to have come from Indo-European languages or have cognates in other Uralic languages. It is possible that these are borrowings from whatever languages were spoken in Europe before the spread of Indo-European languages.
Finnish orthography is highly phonemic, and, barring distinctions between colloquial and standard forms, one can often "write as you read, read as you write".
The language's orthography is often easily-recognizable because of its lack of b, c, f, q, w, x, z and å.
Samples
Spoken sample: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFCixLn9qRw (Lullaby) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejIdIKidqcc (folk song) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCEw4uH2a8I&list=PLL92dfFL9ZdJBbTpg-h9AMnZfxNlHwrbh (Playlist of songs popular in Finland currently) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vYH1JH73pw (Finnish newscast on Bitcoin) Written sample: Vaka vanha Väinämöinen itse tuon sanoiksi virkki: "Näistäpä toki tulisi kalanluinen kanteloinen, kun oisi osoajata, soiton luisen laatijata." Kun ei toista tullutkana, ei ollut osoajata, soiton luisen laatijata, vaka vanha Väinämöinen itse loihe laatijaksi, tekijäksi teentelihe. (Verses 221-232 of song 40 of the Kalevala) Audio here Kaikki ihmiset syntyvät vapaina ja tasavertaisina arvoltaan ja oikeuksiltaan. Heille on annettu järki ja omatunto, ja heidän on toimittava toisiaan kohtaan veljeyden hengessä. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Sources
Further Reading
Wikipedia page on Finnish, and related links
Finnish Sound Structure: Phonetics, phonology, phonotactics and prosody (Suomi, Toivan and Ylitalo 2008)
नमस्ते - This week's language of the week: Nepali!
Nepali (खस भाषा, also known as Khas-kurā (खस कुरा)) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by around 17 million, most of them in Nepal and Bhutan (where about a quarter of the people speak it). It's the official language of Nepal and is an official language of several of India's states. Historically, the language was originally called Khas (Khas kurā) and Gorkhali (language of the Gorkha Kingdom) before the term Nepali was adopted. The origin of modern Nepali language is believed to happened from Sinja of Jumla. Therefore, the Nepali dialect “Khas Bhasa” is still spoken among the people of the region. It is also known as Khey (the native term for Khas-Arya people living in the periphery of the Kathmandu valley), Parbate (native term meaning "of the hill") or Partya among the Newar people, and Pahari among the Madhesis and Tharus. Other names include Dzongkha Lhotshammikha ("Southern Language", spoken by the Lhotshampas of Bhutan).
Linguistics
Nepali is an Indo-Aryan language, meaning it is closely related to other Indian languages, such as Punjabi, Hindustani and Bengali. It developed under the influence of Sanskrit, and this influence shows in the modern language. However, due to Nepal's proximity to Tibet, there are a large number of detectable Tibeto-Burman influences in the language as well. Classification Nepali's full classification is as follows: Indo-European (Proto-Indo-European) > Indo-Iranian (Proto-Indo-Iranian) > Indo-Aryan (Proto-Indo-Aryan) > Northern Indo-Aryan > Eastern Pahari > Nepali Phonology and Phonotactics Nepali has 11 distinctive vowels, six oral vowels and five nasal ones. All the oral vowels have a nasal counterpart except for /o/, where a nasal vowel only occurs allophonically. However, due to the relative rare occurrences of these nasal vowels, some scholars argue that there are only one or two vowels that have phonemic nasal counterparts, with minimal pairs definitively put forth for /a/ and /ã/. Nepali does not have phonemic long vowels, but long vowels can occur after h-deletion. There are 10 diphthongs recognized in Nepali. When analyzed by the language's traditional system, Nepali has 33 consonant sounds. However, only 27 are found in normal speech, with two, /w/ and /j/, actually being allophones of /i/ and and the others found in prescriptive pronunciations of words borrowed from Sanskrit. All but two of the Nepali consonants can have geminate forms intervocalically, and these forms can be distinctive as in /tsʌpʌl/ (unstable) and /tsʌppʌl/ (slipper). The geminate forms can be used with adjectives to express intensity, as in /miʈʈʰo/ (very delicious) compared to /miʈʰo/ (delicious). While Nepali stress is not contrastive, there are various rules governing where the stress in placed. Generally, it will be placed on either the last syllable, the penultimate one or the antepenultimate syllable. If the word is disyllabic, stress will appear on the first syllable if the last syllable is open or if the second syllable is closed with a short vowel, with stress appearing on the second syllable if it is closed with a long vowel. In longer words, the penultimate syllable is stressed if it is long. If the last syllable is closed and contains a long vowel, or if it ends in two consonants it receives the stress. The antepenultimate syllable only receives the stress when the last syllable is open or closed with a short vowel and ending in only one consonant and the penultimate syllable contains a short vowel. Exceptions to these rules, of course, exist, usually determined by particles or word class. The most basic syllable structures in Nepali are V, VC and CVC, though some exceptions occur, mostly in the combination of root and suffix in finite verb forms. Grammar While Nepali nouns do not decline for gender, they do inflect for number (distinguishing only singular and plural) and for one of seven cases (nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative). However, while Nepali nouns do inflect for number, it is not as strict as English, and the plural suffix can easily be left out when the number is indicated in some other way, such as with numerals or quantifiers like "many". Unlike nouns, adjectives in Nepali do inflect for gender as well as number, but do not have to agree with the case marking on the noun. Nepali adjectives preceed the noun they modify. To mark plurality with an adjective, it can be repeated. Comparative and superlative forms do not exist, and instead are marked with a suffix meaning 'than' and 'than all', respectively. Nepali verbs conjugate to show contrasts in the first, second and third persons, as well as in the singular and plural. In the third person singular, the verb is conjugated to distinguish between two genders, masculine and feminine. Furthermore, the verbs inflect to show contrast in three grades of honorifics (low grade, middle grade, high grade) in the second and third persons. Verbs ('go') can also inflect for an infinitive ('to go'), perfective participle ('gone'), imperfective participle ('going'), conjunctive participle ('when going') and absolutive participle ('having gone'). The Nepali verbal system can be divided into five simple tenses: a present indefinite (repeated action, action in immediate future), perfect (actions completed in the past), a future non-definite (future actions, but only those in which there is less than certainty), imperative (commands in second person, injunctions in the others) and plusperfect (actions completed in distant past or prior to another action). There are several complex tenses: present continuous, past continuous, future (stronger than the future non-definite, indicates certainty), conditional, present perfect (actions done in recent past 'i have done'), past perfect (actions done in distant past or actions completed in past prior to others 'had done'), present unknown (sense of recent discovery or experience of the action of the verb or uncertainty with regard to the action), past unknown (parallel to the previous, but in the past). Furthermore, continuous tenses, perfectives and causatives can all be formed as well as a passive/impersonal form.
Hamjambo - This week's language of the week: Swahili!
Swahili, also known as kiswahili (lit. 'coast language') is a Bantu language spoken natively by between 2 and 15 million people. It was traditionally the language of the Swahili people but now acts as a lingua franca throughout most of East Africa, with between 50 million and 100 million total speakers. Swahili serves as a national language of three nations: Tanzania, Kenya, and the DRC. Swahili is also one of the working languages of the African Union and officially recognised as a lingua franca of the East African Community. Due to centuries of contact from trade along the Swahili coast, there are a lot of Arabic loanwords in Swahili.
Linguistics
Swaihili is a Bantu language, meaning it is related to other Bantu languages such as Zulu. Going back further, it is classified as a Niger-Congo language, meaning it is also more distantly related to Yoruba and Igbo. Classification Swahili's full classification is as follows: Niger-Congo > Atlantic Congo > Benue-Congo > Southern Bantoid > Bantu > Northeast Coast Bantu > Sabaki > Swahili Phonology and Phonotactics Swahili has five vowel phonemes, /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, and . There are 29 consonant phonemes, with the stops being distinguished between voiceless, voiceless aspirated and voiced. However, implosives occur as allophones of the voiced consonants (here, is an example of an implosive bilabial stop /ɓ/). Out of these 29 phonemes, three (the two dental fricatives and the voiced velar fricative (/ð/, /θ/ and /ɣ/ respectively) only occur in Arabic loanwords). It is also worth noting that the aspirated and unaspirated voiceless consonants seem to be collapsing and soon will no longer be phonemic. All vowel phonemes can occur either in the initial or final positions, as well as medially before or after vowel or consonant phonemes (i.e. /+ /, / +/, /V _/, /C _/, /V _/ and /C _/). All consonants can occur in the initial position, and all but voiceless aspirates can occur in pre- and post-vocalic medial positions. The voiceless aspirates only occur in pre-vocalic medial positions. In words of Bantu origins, practically only two consonant clusters are allowed: (1) nasal + consonant and (2) consonant + /j/ or /w/. However, a combination of the two types with nasal + obstruent + /j/ or /w/ can occur, such as in ugonjwa 'sickness'. All consonants except voiceless aspirates and /j/ and /w/ can occur after a syllabic /m/ before a syllable boundary. Non-syllabic [m] appears only before labial and labiodental clusters. /t/, /d/, /c/, /ʄ/, /s/, /z/, /w/ and /n/ commonly appear after /n/; if /n/ is syllabic, the appearance of /t/, /c/ and /s/ after it is restricted to monosyllabic stems with these initial consonant phonemes. Only velar consonants and /w/ appear after /ŋ/ and only /w/ after /ɲ/. /j/ does not occur after /b/, /d/, /ʄ/ or /g/, nor after any other non-bilabial or non-labiodental consonant. /w/ cannot occur after /f/, /h/ or /d/ unless /d/ is preceded by /n/ as in mpendwa 'favourite'. In non-Bantu loans, a number of other possible clusters can occur. The smallest syllable unit is either a vowel or a syllabic nasal, and they also mark the syllable division. Consonant clusters in Bantu words are tautosyllabic, so in the word mamba the /mb/ fall in the second syllable. The two most common syllable types found are /V/ and /CV/ though /CCV/ can be found in words that have either a nasal as the first consonant or /j/ or /w/ as the second. /CCCV/ is generally restricted to loan words, except in the case presented above with nasal+ obstruent + /w/ or /j/ (e.g. nyangwa 'sandy wastes'). /C(C)VC/ appears only in loan words. Despite Bantu syllables ending in a vowel, /s/ can occasionally be heard in colloquial speech due to a dropped vowel; however, this is often in free variation with the vowel-final syllable. In Bantu words, and as a general rule, stress falls on the penultimate vowel or syllabic nasal. However, in Arabic loans, it is also possible for the stress to fall on the antepenultimate one. Stress is used to give unity to a word and is used to help segment words. It can also be used to distinguish between two meanings such as in the phrases watáka kázi 'they want work' (accent denotes stress) and wataka kázi 'those looking for a job'. Unlike most Bantu languages, Swahili does not have tone. Grammar Swahili has a general word order of Subject-Verb-Object, though, since Swahili is an agglutinative, they can often be combined together. There are 18 noun classes (down from 22) in Swahili, and two numbers (singular and plural). However, the plurals aren't formed like in other languages; instead, a prefix is added and the noun changes class. Swahili pronouns do not distinguish case like English ones do, though they do distinguish plurality. Personal pronouns are not used for the third person when they do not represent people; instead demonstrative pronouns must be used. These demonstratives come in various forms depending on the noun class of the thing being referred to. The demonstratives referring to 'that' and 'those' are split based on distance from the speaker and if something was already referred to or not. Thus nouns in the first class have the demonstrative huyu 'this', yule 'that over there' and huyo 'that mentioned earlier'. Swahili does not distinguish possessive adjectives and nouns ('my' versus 'mine', in English). Instead, a prefix is added to the root based on the noun class of the thing being possessed. Adjectives in Swahili agree with the noun class of the noun they describe. Adjectives generally follow the nouns they modify. Conjugated Swahili verbs consist of a minimum of three parts: the subject marker, the tense marker and then the stem. The subject marker agrees with the noun class of the subject of the sentence. Because the subject marker must be used even in the case of an explicit subject, the subject can often be dropped e.g. Mimi nilienda dukani (I went to the store, explicit subject) and Nilienda dukani (I went to the store; non-explicit subject); in the previous example, the subject marker was ni-. If the verb has an object, an object prefix, based on the class of the object, comes between the tense marker and the stem. The object marker is only used for direct objects. Swahili verbs distinguish five simple tenses: present progressive, simple present, present perfect, past and future. Likewise, Sawhili verbs distinguish four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive and conditional. The middle two are not divided into tenses, but the conditional can have a past and a present tense. Swahili can also adopt 'compound tenses', of two-word tenses, to indicate the perfect progressive, past progressive, past perfect, future progressive and future perfect. Swahili verbs can adopt 'verb extensions' to change the meaning of the verb. There are six of these: the prepositional extension, used to say the verb is done 'to', 'for' or 'about' the direct object (e.g. Nilimsomea 'I read to him'); the passive extension, used to suggest the verb is done to, rather than by, the subject (e.g. Kilisomwa (na kamati) 'It was read (by the committee)'); the stative extension, used to to suggest the verb happens to the subject, but without an agent; can also be used to suggest that the action of the verb is able to happen (e.g. Baisikeli ilivunjika 'the bicycle broke'); the reciprocal extension, used to suggest two or more subjects performed the action together, or moved towards each other (e.g. tutaonana 'we sell each other'); the causitive extension, used to suggest the subject causes the direct object to perform the action of the verb (Aliendesha gair 'he drove the car' lit. 'he made the car go'); and the reversive extension, which is used to suggest the opposite of the root verb (e.g. Nilifungua mlango 'I opened the door', from kufunga 'to close'). Many verbs can take more than one extension e.g. kushonewa 'to be sewn for'. Swahili also makes use of extensive reduplication. This is when part of the word is repeated, which rarely happens in English ('fancy-shmancy' is an English example). In Swahili, reduplication can be used to for new words or to exaggerate the original word's meaning. It can also change the word from a verb to a noun, etc. e.g. kupinda (v. to bend, twist, fold up) => kipindupindu (n. seizure, convulsions, cholera). Miscellany
The earliest known documents in Swahili are letters written in 1711, though some consider the translation of the Arabic poem Hamziya to be the earliest known Swahili text.
Due to extensive contacts with Arabic and other Muslim traders dating back to the Middle Ages, the original script used to write Swahili was the Arabic Script. Because the language was the main language of commerce in East Africa, colonial administrators decided to standardize it. In June 1928, a conference attended by representatives from Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika and Zanzibar took place. Since the speech of Zanzibar was considered more educated, it was adopted as the standard and a standardized Latin orthography was set up.
Swahili has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in three African Great Lakes countries (Tanzania, Kenya, and the DRC) where it is an official or national language. It is the only African language in the African Union. In 2016, Swahili was made a compulsory subject in all Kenyan schools. Swahili and closely related languages are spoken by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi, the Comoros, Rwanda, Malawi, Mozambique, and northern Zambia. The language was still understood in the southern ports of the Red Sea and along the coasts of southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf in the 20th century.
The language has quite a few dialects, with the standard being based, as mentioned, on the Swahili of Zanzibar Town.
The original name of the language was Kingozi. The current name comes from the Arabic سَوَاحِل (sawāḥil), meaning 'coasts'.
Perhaps the most famous Swahili phrase is 'hakuna matata' (roughly translated as 'no worries' lit. 'problems are not here') thanks to the Lion King; several other Swahili phrases were used in the movie.
Japanese is a member of the Japonic language family mostly spoken in the Japanese Archipelago. As of 2010, it was spoken by over 125 million people, placing it in the top 15 of the most spoken languages.
History
The first extant evidence of the Japanese language comes from the Old Japanese period of the language, lasting until the end of the Nara Period in 794 CE. Older inscriptions do exist, and there are some phonetic transcriptions of Japanese words/names found in old Chinese literature, but the accuracy of these is debatable. Anything from before the Old Japanese period must be based on reconstructions. Some fossilized constructions from Old Japanese are still found in Modern Japanese. The Middle Japanese period is divided into two time frames: Early Middle Japanese, which lasted through the Heian Period (794-1185) and Late Middle Japanese (1185 - 1600) during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. Late Middle Japanese is subdivided into two periods corresponding to the two periods of Japanese history. It was during Late Japanese period that the first European loan words entered the language, including pan (bread) and tabako (originally tobacco, now cigarette), both coming from Portuguese. Late Middle Japanese was also the first form of the language to be described by non-native scholars. The Middle Japanese period gave way to the Early Modern Japanese which roughly spans the Edo period until the Meiji Restoration. Modern Japanese proper emerged after the Meiji Restoration, and continues today.
Linguistics
As a Japonic language, Japanese is closely related to the Ryukyuan languages which could have split from Japanese during the Yamato period. Japanese was long considered a language isolate before the acceptance of the Ryukyuan languages as separate languages. Since then, it has firmly been linked to them. Other theories link Japanese and Korean, sometimes with the broader Altaic family. These, however, have not garnered wide support Classification Japanese's full classification is as follows: Japonic > Japanese Phonology and Phonotactics Japanese has a five vowel system, /i e a o u/, which contrasts for length, giving a total of 10 vowel phonemes. Japanese has a "pure" vowel system, meaning that there are no diphthongs. The vowels /i/ and often become voiceless when they occur between two voiceless consonants. Japanese has 16 native vowel phonemes, including two special ones that occur with moras, /N/ mora nasalization and /Q/, geminination. Furthermore, there are 11 other vowel sounds in the language, though these only occur allophonically or as phonemes in loan words. Japanese does not use a syllabic system for the timing of words, instead using a mora system. Each mora occupies one rhythmic unit, i.e. it is perceived to have the same time value. Each "regular" mora can consist of a vowel, or a consonant vowel combination, sometimes with a glide before the vowel. The two moraic phonemes can constitute a mora as well. Long vowels constitute two mora, with some analyses introducing a third moraic phoneme, / to constitute this break. A table of all the mora types can be seen below (period representing a mora break). Japanese has a standard pitch accent system as well. A word can have one of its moras bearing an accent or not. An accented mora is pronounced with a relatively high tone and is followed by a drop in pitch. The various Japanese dialects have different accent patterns, and some exhibit more complex tonic systems.
Mora type
Example
Japanese
English
Number of Moras
V
/o/
o 尾
tail
1 mora
jV
/jo/
yo世
world
1 mora
CV
/ko/
ko 子
child
1 mora
CjV
/kjo/
kyo 巨
hugeness
1 mora
R
/ in /kjo. or /kjo.o/
kyō 今日
today
2 moras
N
N/ in /ko.N / kon紺
deep blue
2 moras
Q
/Q/ in in /ko.Q.ko/ or /ko.k.ko/
kokko 国庫
national treasury
3 moras
Morphology and Syntax Japanese is an aggulitinative language, and follows a Subject-Object-Verb word order. The only strict rule of Japanese sentence structure is that the verb must be placed at the end of the sentence, though it can be followed by sentence-ending particles. Japanese is a head-final and left-branching language. Japanese can also be described as a 'topic-prominent' language, a feature which arose during the Middle Japanese period and the subject of the sentence is often omitted unless absolutely necessary to prevent ambiguity or to introduce the topic. Japanese nouns do not inflect for number or gender, and definite articles do not exist (though the determiners can sometimes be translated as articles). However, Japanese does have several cases, which are expressed by particles attached to the nouns. These are summarized in the table below:
Case
Particle
Nominative
が (ga) for subject, は (wa) for the topic
Genitive
の (no)
Dative
に (ni)
Accusative
を (wo)
Lative
へ (e)
Ablative
から (kara)
Instrumental
で (de)
Although many grammars and textbooks mention pronouns (代名詞 daimeishi), Japanese lacks true pronouns. (Daimeishi can be considered a subset of nouns.) Strictly speaking, pronouns do not take modifiers, but Japanese daimeishi do: 背の高い彼 se no takai kare (lit. tall he) is valid in Japanese. Interestingly, unlike true pronouns, Japanese daimeishi do not represent a closed-class, meaning that new members can be, and are, regularly added. Like other subjects, Japanese deemphasizes personal daimeishi, which are seldom used. This is partly because Japanese sentences do not always require explicit subjects, and partly because names or titles are often used where pronouns would appear in a translation. Furthermore, Japanese only has one reflexive daimeishi, with uses much different to English reflexives. Japanese verbs do not conjugate for person or number, meaning the same form of the verb is used regardless of the subject of the sentence. However, they do conjugate differently based on the level of politness required. The basic form of the Japanese verb is the imperfective aspect, which can encompass the present or the future and is thus sometimes called a 'non-past' form. It is the lemma of the word, and thus what will be found in the dictionary, and can stand on its own, as in (私は)買い物する (watashi wa) kaimono suru: "(I) shop", or "(I) will shop". The perfective aspect of a verb generally ends in -ta (or -da), but various phonetic changes are made, depending on the verb's last syllable. This is often presented as a past tense, but can be used in any tense. To make a verb negative, the -u of the ending generally becomes -anai, though this changes based on formality in some auxiliary verbs, notably the copula (which has different forms based on formality). The "i form" of the verb is formed by changing the -u to -i and has a variety of uses including (among others) to form polite verbs when followed by the -ます -masu ending, to express a wish when followed by the ending -たい -tai and to express that something is easy or hard when followed by -易い -yasui or -難い -nikui. The te form of a Japanese verb (sometimes called the "participle", the "gerund", or the "gerundive form") is used when the verb has some kind of connection to the following words. Usages of this form include forming a simple command, in requests (with くれる kureru and 下さい kudasai) and to form the progressive tense as an auxiliary. Many other uses of the te form exist as well. To form the potential form of the verb, the -u ending becomes -eru. This is used to express that one has the ability to do something. Since this is a passive form, what would be a direct object in English is marked with the particle が ga instead of を o. For example, 日本語が読める nihongo ga yomeru: "I can read Japanese" (lit. "Japanese can be read"). It is also used to request some action from someone, in the exact sense of the English "Can you ... ?", though this would never be used to ask permission, unlike in English. The general pattern for the passive voice is: -u becomes -areru. The passive is used as a general passive, as a 'suffering passive', to indicate that something regretful was done to someone, or as a form of polite language. The causative forms are characterized by the final u becoming aseru for consonant stem verbs, and ru becoming saseru for vowel stem verbs. This form is used for making someone do something, allowing someone to do something, with explicit actors making someone do something as well as as an honorific form. The causative passive form is obtained by first conjugating in the causative form and then conjugating the result in the passive form. As its rule suggests, the causative passive is used to express causation passively: 両親に勉強させられる ryōshin ni benkyō saserareru: "(I) am made to study by (my) parents". The eba provisional conditional form is characterized by the final -u becoming -eba for all verbs (with the semi-exception of -tsu verbs becoming -teba). This form is used in conditionals where more emphasis is on the condition than the result as well as to express obligations. The conditional ra form (also called the past conditional) is formed from the past tense (TA form) by simply adding ra. ba can be further added to that, which makes it more formal. This form is used when emphasis is needed to be placed on the result and the condition is less uncertain to be met. 日本に行ったら、カメラを買いたい。nihon ni ittara, kamera wo kaitai: "If (when) I go to Japan, then (when that has happened) I want to buy a camera." It can also be used as the main clause of the past tense and is often translated as 'when'; when used like this, it carries an emphasis that the result was unexpected. Most of the imperative forms are characterized by the final u becoming e. The imperative form is used in orders, set phrases, reported speech where a request might be rephrased this way, on signs and in motivation speaking. Volitional, presumptive, or hortative forms have several endings based on the verb class. This form is used to express or ask volitional ("Let's/Shall we?") statements and questions, to express a conjecture (with deshō), to express what one is thinking of doing (with omou) and to express 'about to' and 'trying to'. Japanese does not have traditional adjectives like English, instead expressing adjectives with 'adjectival verbs' or 'adjectival nouns'. Japanese adjectives do not have comparative or superlative inflections; comparatives and superlatives have to be marked periphrastically using adverbs. Every adjective in Japanese can be used in an attributive position. Nearly every Japanese adjective can be used in a predicative position. Finally, Japanese has many particles. Among the ones already mentioned, with identify the case of the noun, Japanese uses particles to express what would normally be expressed by prepositions in English, but they also have other meanings such as "just" in "I just ate" or "not only" when adding information ("not only did I eat it, but he did too").
Miscellany
The oldest writing in Japan is in Classical Chinese, though some evidence points to the fact that these texts were supposed to be read as Old Japanese.
Japan currently has three writing systems: the syllabic systems of hiragana and katakana as well as the logographic system of the kanji. All of these came from borrowings (and then simplification) of Chinese logographs.
Japanese has had several different methods of adapting the Chinese symbols to their language. Among these are the Kojiki system of mixed writing, Man'yōgana (which hiragana and katakana came from, and is a sister system to modern day kanji).
Hiragana first gained popularity among women, who were generally not allowed access to the same levels of education as men. And thus hiragana was first widely used among court women in the writing of personal communications and literature. From this comes the alternative name of onnade (女手) "women's writing". For example, The Tale of Genji and other early novels by female authors used hiragana extensively or exclusively.
Japanese was traditionally written right to left, top to bottom.
Telugu Verbs. Learning the Telugu Verbs is very important because its structure is used in every day conversation. The more you master it the more you get closer to mastering the Telugu language. But first we need to know what the role of Verbs is in the structure of the grammar in Telugu. Multibhashi’s Telugu-English Dictionary will help you find the meaning of different words from Telugu to English like meaning of ‘Andamina’ meaning of Adbhutham and from English to Telugu like meaning of Awesome, meaning of stunning, etc. Raandi in hindi is abusive where as in telugu it is one of … See more. You are therefore well advised, no way too much time pass to be left, what You Synonyms for conjugated include compounded, connected, coupled, joined, linked, catenated, chained, concatenated, hitched and hooked. Find more similar words at lipoprotein translation in English-Telugu dictionary. Showing page 1. Found 7 sentences matching phrase "lipoprotein".Found in 0 ms. Definition of unconjugated in the Definitions.net dictionary. Meaning of unconjugated. What does unconjugated mean? Information and translations of unconjugated in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. BILIRUBIN meaning in telugu, BILIRUBIN pictures, BILIRUBIN pronunciation, BILIRUBIN translation,BILIRUBIN definition are included in the result of BILIRUBIN meaning in telugu at kitkatwords.com, a free online English telugu Picture dictionary. English Telugu. English Telugu English - Telugu; conjoined twins; conjoint; conjugacy; conjugal; conjugal rights and therefore generally resembling it in meaning. To inflect (a verb) for each person, in order, for one or more tenses. To multiply on the left by one element and on the right by its inverse. To join together, unite; to juxtapose. (of bacteria and algae) To temporarily fuse /ignore you meaning in telugu. ignore you meaning in telugu. 25-12-2020 por Dejar un comentario por Dejar un comentario More Telugu words for conjugate. రతిలో పాల్గొను : Ratilō pālgonu conjugate: క్రియకు వివిధ రూపములను చెప్పు: Kriyaku vividha rūpamulanu ceppu conjugate: Find more words! Use * for blank tiles (max 2) Advanced Search Advanced Search: Use * for blank spaces Advanced Search: Advanced Word Finder: See Also in English. c CONJUGATE meaning in telugu, CONJUGATE pictures, CONJUGATE pronunciation, CONJUGATE translation,CONJUGATE definition are included in the result of CONJUGATE meaning in telugu at kitkatwords.com, a free online English telugu Picture dictionary.
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